Beef and soybean agriculture are carving up this massive forest, which spans four countries and has some of the world’s highest deforestation rates.
The Place:
The Gran Chaco covers 303,782 square miles spanning Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil. It is the second-largest natural forest in Latin America and has experienced some of the highest levels of deforestation on Earth.
Why it matters:
The Gran Chaco is home to 25 different Indigenous communities at risk of displacement from their ancestral lands by deforestation and land conversion, leaving them with nowhere else to go. Its great variety of ecosystems are also home to endemic, endangered, and threatened plants and wildlife, including around 3,400 species of plants, 150 mammals, and 500 bird species. Several IUCN Red List species, such as jaguars, peccaries, solitary eagles, giant anteaters, and lowland tapirs, are facing habitat loss within the Paraguayan Chaco, as land use change poses an increased threat to their survival.
A Gran Chaco resident. Photo: Quadriz
The threat:
The rapid forest loss within the Gran Chaco is primarily driven by the expansion of commercial agriculture, particularly beef and soybean production, with Paraguay emerging as a top 10 exporter of these commodities. Contributing to this trend are the largely private ownership of the majority of the Paraguayan Chaco and a legal framework that allows up to 75% of privately owned forest land to be deforested for agricultural purposes.
Agricultural fields seen from the air, carving up the Gran Chaco. Photo: Quadriz
My place in this place:
I have been working as country manager of Quadriz Paraguay since February 2021.
As a nature lover, I have a particular fascination with the Chaco, as a wildly unique haven of biodiversity and a vital carbon sink that is often overlooked internationally.
I have experienced the joy of conservation work. Seeing the beauty of my country and the animals we share it with has been a privilege that has fueled my dedication to the protection of the forest for generations to come.
Who’s protecting it now:
In response to this crisis, initiatives like the Corazón Verde del Chaco (Green Heart of the Chaco) project, developed by my organization Quadriz, are working to protect native forests and provide safe havens for wildlife. This project safeguards 124 square miles (32,000 hectares) of Gran Chaco forest and offers landowners an economic alternative to commercial agriculture through carbon credits.
What this place needs:
To conserve the Gran Chaco for future generations and prevent further biodiversity loss, we need to support a constructive dialogue between landowners and impact investors. By raising awareness and increasing understanding of the environmental, ecological and economic value of the Chaco, we can boost conservation efforts.
Formal recognition of the very real threat facing the unique ecology of the Gran Chaco has provided the foundations for research and pilot programs. Now ongoing collaboration and awareness are required.
Lessons from the fight:
My work with Quadriz has taught me that both public policy and carbon policy frameworks are effective instruments to prevent deforestation and biodiversity loss.
But speed and scale are limiting factors. To overcome these we need partnerships that channel climate finance to ensure immediate forest conservation actions that generate multiple benefits for the community.
Another important lesson is to celebrate and share the images we have been able to capture of jaguars, snakes, birds, and the landscape’s natural beauty to convey what a truly spectacular place the Paraguayan Chaco is and underscore the importance of our work to protect it.
Follow the fight:
We regularly share news and updates on our project’s progress, conservation updates and snapshots of our work on our website, LinkedIn, and Instagram.
Our latest group of reviews showcases books that remind us about what we’re saving — and why we do it.
Everywhere I go this holiday season, I hear the same refrain: People are desperate for something to inspire them.
That’s why I’ve spent the past several weeks with my head in a series of books, all offering insight into the natural world and how to protect it.
Here are 20 environmental books published in 2024 for readers of all ages and experience. They offer vision, knowledge, and a sense of wonder — necessary to help us build a better planet no matter who’s in the White House in the year to come.
You’ll find my capsule reviews below, along with the books’ official descriptions. The links for each title go to the official publishers’ pages, but you should also be able to find any of these books through your local booksellers or libraries.
Quite possibly the best ecology book I’ve ever read. An eye-opening memoir that has me looking for life — and often finding it — amidst the broken places in my suburban neighborhood.
From the publisher: “During the real estate crash of the late 2000s, Christopher Brown purchased an empty lot in an industrial section of Austin, Texas. The property — abandoned and full of litter and debris — was an unlikely site for a home. Brown had become fascinated with these empty lots around Austin, so-called “ruined” spaces once used for agriculture and industry awaiting their redevelopment. He discovered them to be teeming with natural activity and embarked on a 20-year project to live in and document such spaces. There, in our most damaged landscapes, he witnessed the remarkable resilience of wild nature, and how we can heal ourselves by healing the Earth.”
A marvelous, melancholy, celebratory book from an internationally bestselling author. Rundell writes brief, moving essays about nearly two dozen imperiled species (or groups of species), with each chapter digging deep into literature (historic, cultural, and scientific) to present a portrait of why these animals are worth saving. She only has personal experience with a couple of these species, but she’s met a pangolin, which is more than most of us can say.
“This urgent, inspiring book of essays dedicated to 23 unusual and underappreciated creatures is a clarion call insisting that we look at the world around us with new eyes — to see the magic of the animals we live among, their unknown histories and capabilities, and above all how lucky we are to tread the same ground as such vanishing treasures.”
Kolbert (best known from The New Yorker and her book The Sixth Extinction) is among our most important and insightful climate journalists. Here she speak to a younger audience in a way that’s sure to click with the next generation.
“In H Is for Hope, Elizabeth Kolbert investigates the landscape of climate change — from “A”, for Svante Arrhenius, who created the world’s first climate model in 1894, to “Z”, for the Colorado River Basin, ground zero for climate change in the United States. Along the way she looks at Greta Thunburg’s “blah blah blah” speech (“B”), learns to fly an all-electric plane (“E”), experiments with the effects of extreme temperatures on the human body (“T”), and struggles with the deep uncertainty of the future of climate change (“U”).”
This book is a virtual forest. It’s a beautiful collection of hundreds of artistic interpretations of trees, executed in every conceivable medium, with mini-essays putting each image in context. This is what coffee table books were invented for.
“Spanning continents and cultures, Tree reflects the diversity of its subject, depicting giant sequoias, cherry blossoms, palms, poplars, ginkgoes and other species found across Earth’s forest biomes, in a wide-ranging selection of visuals dating from Ancient Greece to the present day. Curated by an international panel of botanists, naturalists, art historians and other experts, the images expand the definition of botanical art, together forming a vibrant, vital homage to the natural world.”
“Published in association with the Library of Congress and edited by the twenty-fourth Poet Laureate of the United States, a singular collection of poems reflecting on our relationship to the natural world by 50 of our most celebrated contemporary writers.”
A powerful, important book that illuminates global environmental crises and cries out for change. It’s gotten a lot of notice (Reese Witherspoon added it to her book club), so I’m hoping it will generate some action.
“Born into the Waorani tribe of Ecuador’s Amazon rainforest — one of the last to be contacted by missionaries in the 1950s — Nemonte Nenquimo had a singular upbringing. She was taught about plant medicines, foraging, oral storytelling, and shamanism by her elders… Two decades later, Nemonte has emerged as one of the most forceful voices in climate change activism. She has spearheaded the alliance of Indigenous nations across the Upper Amazon and led her people to a landmark victory against Big Oil, protecting over a half million acres of primary rainforest. Her message is as sharp as a spear — honed by her experiences battling loggers, miners, oil companies and missionaries.”
A unique memoir from the author of novels like A Children’s Bible (as well as a fellow Center for Biological Diversity employee and The Revelator’s primary copyeditor). The narrative ebbs and flows like the ocean, sharing waves of memories interspersed with eddies of conservation facts and history. Each aspect illuminates the other, and the result is a book that shines a light on pain and wonder.
“Emerging from Millet’s quarter century of wildlife and climate advocacy, We Loved it All marries scenes from her life with moments of nearness to “the others” — the animals and plants with whom we share the earth. Accounts of fears and failures, jobs and friendships, childhood and motherhood are interspersed with exquisite accounts of nonhumans and arresting meditations on the power of story to shape the future.”
An eyewitness to history, Boyd unspools an amazing account that makes me wonder what wolf conservation will look like in another 40 years (not to mention the next four).
“Called the Jane Goodall of wolves, world-renowned wildlife biologist Diane Boyd has spent four decades studying and advocating for wolves in the wilds of Montana near Glacier National Park… She faced down grizzly bears, mountain lions, wolverines — and the occasional trapper — as she stalked her quarry: a handful of wolves that were making their way south from Canada into Montana…. In this captivating book, Boyd takes the reader on a wild ride from the early days of wolf research to the present-day challenges of wolf management across the globe, highlighting her interactions with an apex predator that captured her heart and her undying admiration. Her writing resonates with her indomitable spirit as she explores the intricate balance of human and wolf coexistence.”
A stunning memoir, a testament to the natural world, and a perfect example of why printed books still outshine e-books (although you’ll still need a phone or tablet to access the online extras).
“Foster explores his struggles to remain present to life when a disconnection from nature and the demands of his professional life begin to deaden his senses. And his own reliance on nature’s rejuvenating spiritual power is put to the test when catastrophe strikes close to home.”
This profusely illustrated science book presents young readers with engaging facts about four amazing animals. It’s a perfect one-two punch, encouraging species conservation and saving the planet in one joyful package.
“In our left corner we have the meanest villain that’s ever existed. Responsible for rising seas and loss of biodiversity, it’s climate change ready to wreak havoc on the Earth. But in our right corner? We have four superheroes ready to save the day! Forest elephants protect our forests by trampling trees. Whales boost ocean health with their massive poo-nados. Sea otters defend kelp forests from purple invaders. And echidnas bury tons of soil to stop climate change. But we can’t leave them in this fight alone. We need to protect our heroes who, in return, defend our planet. Get ready to learn all about these four legged, and two-flippered, creatures and how YOU can be a climate hero too!”
An unexpected joy of a graphic novel that brings classic poetry (and a classic poet) to new life.
“Follow along as we delve into Emily Dickinson’s childhood, revealing a young girl desperate to go out exploring — to meet the flowers in their own homes. Wade through tall grasses to gather butterfly weed and goldenrod, the air alive with the ‘buccaneers of buzz.’ And, don’t forget to keep a hot potato in your pocket to keep your fingers warm.”
Literary legend meets feathered friends. Tan’s impassioned prose is complemented by her surprisingly accomplished illustrations. We’re lucky this joyful and meditative book exists.
“In 2016 Amy Tan grew overwhelmed by the state of the world: Hatred and misinformation became a daily presence on social media, and the country felt more divisive than ever. In search of peace, Tan turned toward the natural world just beyond her window and, specifically, the birds visiting her yard. But what began as an attempt to find solace turned into something far greater — an opportunity to savor quiet moments during a volatile time, connect to nature in a meaningful way, and imagine the intricate lives of the birds she admired.”
You need to have a lot of reverence and respect for wildlife to write a book like this fun guide, which centers around one region of California but provides details on species that can be found in many other places. Even though I don’t hail from the Bay area or expect to visit soon, I found this to be an entertaining, informative, and occasionally angry celebration of wildlife and a vibrant part of the country. (Full disclosure: Miller is a fellow employee of the Center for Biological Diversity.)
“Jeff Miller’s quirky guide to the coolest animal neighbors in the Bay Area will have you gawking at elk, whooping with cranes, and crowning yourself a crossing guard for newts before you know it. Join Jeff on a local safari to meet more than sixty species of mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and insects, and discover the fascinating and sometimes bizarre mating, feeding, and athletic antics of our most charismatic animals.”
I need to meet more young parents so I can watch them and their families put this book to the test.
“Whether you are in the forest, in your own backyard, or in the city, there are so many exciting ways to engage with nature — and forester Peter Wohlleben has the best ideas for doing so. Kids will learn how to press flowers, harvest algae, skip stones, observe spiders, and even how to build their own tiny sailboat.”
Cryptozoology (the study of wildlife that may or may not exist, like Bigfoot) can be a great lens through which to examine environmental issues like pollution and habitat loss. This book brings the mythical to life and gives it surprising relevance to the very real environmental problems we face.
“In the summer of 1978, residents along the Virginia side of the Potomac River were startled by sightings of a strange creature lurking in the water. Eventually dubbed Chessie, this elusive sea serpent tantalized reporters and the public alike, always slipping away just out of reach… As the bay transitioned from a hub of labor-intensive activities to a recreational destination, Chessie became a symbol with multilayered meaning. Environmentalists seized the opportunity to educate the public on the bay’s importance as an ecosystem, while tourists and suburbanites found solace in connecting culturally with the bay. Meanwhile, watermen faced the unsettling prospect of a declining way of life.”
Regular readers may remember Lange’s Revelator essay about Germany’s “Green Belt” and what it represents for humans and nature. That essay just scratched the surface — this book-length examination takes us on a powerful journey through the Green Belt’s history, culture, and ecology.
“During the four decades the Iron Curtain divided Germany and the European continent, over 1,200 rare animal and plant species found refuge in the border strip — today’s Grünes Band or Green Belt. Lange uses the 1,400-kilometer-long German Green Belt as a map for a personal reconnaissance of her home country and as a prism through which to investigate the transformation of the border, along with the societal reverberations of the division and its aftermath.”
A vital history book uncovering forgotten heroes faced with making choices few of us have had to make. It has painful relevance in a world where monocultures increasingly squeeze out rare and potentially valuable plants and crop varieties and the threat of war lurks around every corner.
“The riveting, untold true story of the botanists at the world’s first seed bank who faced an impossible choice during the Siege of Leningrad: eat the collection to prevent starvation, or protect their life’s work to help end world hunger?”
The kind of book that belongs on every end-of-year gift-book list — if only because it celebrates the exact opposite of the season’s crass commercialization.
“As Indigenous scientist and author of Braiding Sweetgrass Robin Wall Kimmerer harvests serviceberries alongside the birds, she considers the ethic of reciprocity that lies at the heart of the gift economy. How, she asks, can we learn from Indigenous wisdom and the plant world to reimagine what we value most? Our economy is rooted in scarcity, competition, and the hoarding of resources, and we have surrendered our values to a system that actively harms what we love. Meanwhile, the serviceberry’s relationship with the natural world is an embodiment of reciprocity, interconnectedness, and gratitude. The tree distributes its wealth — its abundance of sweet, juicy berries — to meet the needs of its natural community. And this distribution insures its own survival.”
Notes From an Island by Tove Jansson with paintings by Tuulikki Pietilä, translated by Thomas Teal
Long available in Europe, this brief but illuminating tome by the author of the delightful Moomintroll series is finally available on our shores. It’s half diary and half memoir — a love letter to a remote, rocky island, its challenging ecosystem, and its two human inhabitants. (I’m still upset about what they did to Big Boulder, though.)
“In the bitter winds of autumn 1963, Tove Jansson … raced to build a cabin on a treeless island in the Gulf of Finland. The island was Klovharun, where for 30 summers Tove and her beloved partner, the visual artist, Tuulikki “Tooti” Pietilä, lived, painted, and wrote, energized by the solitude and shifting seascapes. The island’s flora, fauna, and weather patterns provided deep inspiration which can be seen reflected in all of Jansson’s work, most famously in her bestselling novel The Summer Book and her longstanding comic strip and novels for children, Moomin. Tove’s signature spare, quirky prose, and Tooti’s subtle ink washes and aquatints combine to form a work of meditative beauty, a chronicle of living peacefully in nature and observing the island’s ecology and character.”
We don’t usually cover books that focus on individual action, since we prefer to take a more systematic approach, but there’s no more basic way to help the planet than by looking at the clothes on our backs — especially during this season of endless consumerism.
“Reportedly, the clothing industry produces 80 billion garments a year, employs 15% of the world’s population, exploits labor, and seriously pollutes the environment. However, we as consumers have the power to make a difference with the clothing choices we make. Top fashion writer turned sustainability activist Tiffanie Darke sheds light on the unsustainable practices and immense environmental impact of the fashion industry and presents a compelling argument for why transformative change is urgently needed.”
A richly illustrated book by a scientist who spent four decades exploring the southernmost continent, seeing things few people will ever see. His stories and photographs bring that remote world to life (and remind us that we could lose this hidden beauty in the decades to come).
“With stories of Stump’s forty years of journeys and science, Otherworldly Antarctica contains 130 original color photographs, complemented by watercolors and sketches by artist Marlene Hill Donnelly… Many of Stump’s breathtaking images are aerial shots taken from the planes and helicopters that brought him to the interior. More were shot from vantages gained by climbing the mountains he studied. Some were taken from the summits of peaks. Many are of places no one had set foot before — or has since. All seem both permanent and precarious, connecting this otherworld to our fragile own.”
That’s it for this month, but you can find hundreds of additional book recommendations in the “Revelator Reads” archives.
Melting glaciers, plant genetics, protection from forever chemicals, and more: An annual look at the conservation horizon reveals priorities for the years ahead.
Each year since 2009, researchers from Cambridge University have brought together scientists, policymakers, practitioners, and other experts from around the world to identify the emerging threats and opportunities likely to affect biological conservation in the future. This year a team of 32 authors distilled a list of 15 issues that they judged to be most novel and potentially impactful.
“The 15 issues presented here are essential reading for anyone interested in global biodiversity conservation and potential future trajectories,” the authors wrote in this year’s paper. “Whilst it is impossible to predict exactly how the future will transpire, all the issues raised in this latest horizon scan are worthy of increased consideration from the conservation sector, as we seek to address the drivers of biodiversity loss.”
Here are the results of their 16th horizon scan:
Not-So-Forever Chemicals?
Some 15,000 kinds of synthetic chemicals collectively known as PFAS or “forever chemicals” have dispersed widely through the environment. With recent recognition of the physiology-disrupting threats these chemicals pose to humans and animals, researchers have ramped up efforts to find ways to destroy them. Recent advances have brought forward several new approaches that hold promise for removing the pollutants from the environment and limiting their spread and potential for future harm. They include using heat generated by electricity to destroy them in soil and deploying a mix of other chemicals to degrade them in drinking water. Reducing the presence of PFAS in the environment can help reduce their threat to wildlife already on the brink from other stresses.
Nighttime Ozone
Low-level ozone is an air pollutant produced when nitrogen oxides combine with organic compounds released into the air by vehicles, factories, homes, and trees. Recent observations in some places have shown a nighttime increase in the odorless gas, which can harm ecosystems. The reason remains unclear, but cutting emissions of nitrogen oxides and organic compounds through targeted strategies such as selecting low-emitting trees for urban areas could help alleviate the problem.
Tree Trouble
Two EU laws are changing the conditions for forest harvesting: the Regulation on Deforestation-Free Products, effective at the end of 2024, which reduces the risk that wood harvesting will destroy or degrade forests, and the EU Forest Strategy for 2030, which aims to prevent harm to old-growth forests. At the same time, wood consumption is increasing, and disasters like wildfires and pest outbreaks are constraining supply. Much of the land that could provide wood in the future is in private hands, further complicating the ability to meet demand. The new laws are good news when it comes to lessening forest destruction and damage. They also may stimulate tree planting and more intensive management in Europe and elsewhere. At the same time, they could make it harder for the EU to achieve climate and other sustainability goals.
Micro Filters
Novel porous micromaterials known as metal organic frameworks can form the basis of new technologies that offer environmental benefits such as soaking up pollutants, storing carbon dioxide, and improving batteries needed to support renewable energy. Even newer variations on the theme, nonmetal organic frameworks, have yet more desirable characteristics. Together these two types of innovative filters and collectors have potential to contribute to species conservation by enhancing our ability to remove pollutants from ecosystems, decreasing the need to mine metals, and directly and indirectly helping to reduce the concentrations of climate-changing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Elements From Algae
So-called “rare earth” elements such as neodymium and yttrium are in increasing demand for use in renewable energy technologies, medical procedures, and more. Obtaining a secure supply can be problematic, though, because these elements tend to be dispersed rather than concentrated in the earth, and much of the current supply comes from China. Recent discoveries that certain algae can take up and concentrate rare earth elements from wastewater and ocean water hold promise for generating a novel supply of the elements. As a bonus, processes for further densifying the elements can yield biomass (fuel derived from algae) that can help provide the energy needed to do so.
Thrip-Tripping Hair Traps
Conventional pesticides pose threats to pollinators and other beneficial insects, with cascading adverse impacts on entire ecosystems. The search for safer alternatives has turned up an intriguing option: Selectively trapping undesirable insects by luring them to a sticky surface coated with hairs that mimics natural pest-deterring “trichome” hairs on plants. The approach has been tested experimentally with some success on western flower thrips, which spread a pathogen affecting tomatoes, piquing interest in applying it to control other species as well. If the approach becomes more widely applicable, it could help reduce the need for ecosystem-harming pest-control practices.
Customized Plant Evolution
What if we could hyperdrive plants’ ability to cope with climate change or other human assaults, or selectively kill weeds or invasives without harming crops or other desirable species? A technology called genetic welding may soon make that possible. Researchers recently developed the ability to insert into a plant’s genome a specialized DNA-based tool called a gene drive that dramatically enhances the chances the gene it contains will be passed from one generation to the next. Applied judiciously, this capability could speed adaptation to changing environmental conditions and reduce the use of ecosystem-harming interventions like pesticides. However, care will be needed to prevent gene drives from getting out of control in target species or leaping to nontarget plants.
No Heat Needed
It’s not often a basic physics discovery opens the door to exciting new opportunities to more sustainably meet human needs, but the current moment is an exception. Researchers recently reported that water commonly uses light without heat to transform from liquid to gas in nature. Recognition of this phenomenon of “photomolecular evaporation” has sparked ideas for new ways to improve the efficiency of desalination plants, which produce water for uses such as consumption and irrigation from brackish or ocean water. It also holds promise for improving our ability to predict the effects of greenhouse gas production on Earth’s climate.
Climate-Friendly Use for Old Cement
Cement production is currently responsible for more than 7% of global CO2-eq emissions and is increasingly rapidly. In addition, extraction of the raw materials used to make it harms ecosystems. New technology is making it possible to use old cement in place of conventional material in one stage of steel recycling, which also emits greenhouse gases. Not only that, but after the material has done its job there, what’s left can go back into the cement production cycle. How much the process reduces greenhouse gas emissions depends on the details. But with cement production expected to grow one-third by 2050, this offers a potentially valuable approach to reducing cement’s adverse impacts on biodiversity.
Hot Pockets
Technologies that use the heat beneath the Earth’s surface to generate electricity can be 10 times more productive if they tap into pockets of molten rock found near volcanoes. As the ability to access these hot pockets grows, so do concerns about the ramifications for ecosystems. Plans to further explore near-magma geothermal reservoirs and exploit them as an energy source in Iceland in 2026 open the door to a novel opportunity to reduce climate-changing fossil fuel use. At the same time, they raise a red flag for potential application in the tropics and other biodiversity-rich areas where the technology could stimulate the development of habitat-disrupting industry and policies.
Water, Water, Everything
As the most common substance on Earth, water is easy to take for granted. But recent modeling suggests that its ability to sustain life may be at risk. Some 3 billion people and 15.5 million square miles (40 million square kilometers) of land potentially face shortages of clean water by 2050, thanks to changes in quality and distribution due to alterations Earth’s climate and land use as well as contamination with nitrogen and other pollutants. Such disruption would not only affect ecosystems directly but could also alter where people live, posing new challenges to habitats and so new threats to species conservation.
Southern Sea Ice
The Southern Ocean has seemed to avoid the extensive losses of ice being observed due to climate change in the Arctic and elsewhere — until now. In recent years scientists have observed extensive reductions of seasonal sea ice around the entire perimeter of Antarctica. This trend holds portents for living things large and small as the location and extent of algae that thrive at ice edges alter, the penetration of light into the ocean increases, and ecosystem-wide shifts potentially favor algae over animal life.
Glacier on the Go
One of the wild cards of climate change has been the melting rate of glaciers in the cold regions of the world, which hold enough water to substantially raise the level of Earth’s oceans. Recent observations show the Thwaites glacier in western Antarctica is melting more quickly than anticipated due to insufficiently anticipated consequences of early loss of ice. Water from the glacier alone could increase sea level by more than 1.6 feet (half a meter). If the loss of the glacier leads to the collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet, that number soars to more than 10 feet (3 meters). Resulting coastal inundation around the world would dramatically alter ecosystems directly and cause mass migrations of humans that could further threaten species. Geoengineering could slow the loss, but that also carries risk of unintended adverse consequences for biodiversity.
Mucking up the Sea Bottom
Much of Earth’s carbon is locked up in the sediments on the ocean floor, and more is added each day. Trawling and other disturbances can stir up sediments and eventually move that carbon back into the atmosphere, where it’s able to contribute to climate change. To date there has been little regulation of human activities that disrupt this part of the planet. But as fishing, mining, and other potential for disturbance grow, attention to the value of this resource in storing greenhouse gas precursors, along with strategies to protect it, could go a long way toward preventing future unintended consequences of meddling with the sea floor.
Wind and Sea
Giant wind turbines attached to the bottom of the ocean or floating on the surface are being constructed or considered around the world as a promising source of electricity to replace fossil fuels. Conservation threats include disrupting travel pathways for animals changing physical and chemical traits of the ocean water and disrupting currents and thus movements of creatures floating in them. Researchers are working to understand the extent to which such shifts will not only affect ocean life in the immediate vicinity but create larger snowballing effects through the broader ocean ecosystem as a first step in mitigating adverse impacts on biodiversity.
In addition to the new elements, the researchers reviewed the horizon scan’s predictions from a decade ago to see how they fared and how they connected to this year’s report. Among their findings:
As predicted, the loss of sea ice in the southern hemisphere has disrupted krill populations. New research has shown that these animals have migrated, likely due to climate change — affecting the birds and mammals who depend on them for food.
Loss of sea ice was and remains a concern for life along the Antarctic coastline.
Algae have a repeat performance as a potential benefit — in the previous report as a substitute for palm oil, and in this one as a source of rare earth elements.
Electric vehicle adoption has been higher than was anticipated in 2015.
The effect on the environment from increased cocaine and cannabis production remains a concern.
Impact investment, noted in 2015 as in a growth spurt, continues strong, although biodiversity is a minor beneficiary and demand exceeds supply.
After several decades of precipitous decline, new efforts to protect this species begin in earnest in late 2024.
Extirpated from the United States a century ago and almost unknown until the mid-1990s, this endangered species can make a comeback if we give it a small boost. New technology for tracking has allowed an assessment and intervention that may help these birds hold on in several critical areas.
Species name:
Thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha)
Description:
A typical parrot-green, mid-sized bird weighing 14-17 ounces (400-500 grams) with a distinctive wine-red mask. In flight, a distinctive yellow band is visible under the wings. Their raucous calls sound like laughter in the middle of the forest.
We’re back, she calls! Thick-billed parrots mate for life, usually spending more than 30 years flying together in mature forests in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. Photo: Ernesto Enkerlin/OVIS
Where They’re Found:
Thick-billed parrots live mostly in Mexico’s Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range. They were presumably once abundant representatives of high-altitude pine forests, where they persist to this day in much smaller numbers due to the destruction of most old-growth forests and the reduction of mature forests. The species is only present in a small number of zones with adequate conditions for nesting, where they’re mostly under protection or good forest management.
IUCN Red List status:
Considered “endangered” in the most recent 2020 assessment, mainly due to habitat loss and an apparent constant decline. The first comprehensive population estimate will be conducted this fall. The parrot will be one of the first bird species to undergo the IUCN’s new Green Status Assessment, which measures the recovery of species populations and their conservation success.
Major Threats:
The extirpation of thick-billed parrots in the northern part of their range is believed to have been caused by hunting or shooting the parrots for “sport” or food. In the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico, where the core populations and range have been holding on, massive land-use change — particularly forestry practices to harvest all old-growth and large trees and remove snags that serve as nesting trees — resulted in precipitous decline over the past century, up until very recently. From the 1970s to the 1990s, demand by collectors and the pet trade became an additional threat that has since largely disappeared or represents minimal pressure on the species.
Notable Conservation Programs or Legal Protections:
For 30 years a small group of individuals and institutions have been doing research and developing a suite of techniques for thick-billed parrots, not only for research but also to enhance population growth by mitigating or eliminating factors that increase mortality and reduce productivity.
Most of the work during this time, which provided valuable information and insights, was done at a “pilot scale” and with meager resources. As a result we were basically frustrated witnesses to a species’ decline and potential demise.
Photo: Ernesto Enkerlin/OVIS
Fortunately the species is currently the focus of a comprehensive binational effort of community-based conservation to change the trajectory of decline. The field team is led by Organización Vida Silvestre (OVIS) and supported notably by San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, the Arizona Game and Fish Department, World Parrot Trust, and additional supporters and donors.
Over the next five years (2024-2028) we will implement the full suite of actions, including intensive nest monitoring and management, parasite control on an ad-hoc basis, food supplementation to chicks in select clutches to prevent emaciation, an enhanced nesting box program, fire pre-suppression activities, incentives to local communities, community-based monitoring and nest protection, greater understanding of landscape level need of the thick-billed parrot, and amplifying the telemetry information to include not only long distance movements but also daily activities to food, water and clay licks.
From the first results recorded in 2024, we have renewed optimism that the species can be at least stabilized within a few years and probably begin to recover.
My Favorite Experience:
I had recently finished my Ph.D. when the research and conservation efforts began in the mid-1990s. We negotiated the first-ever “payment to forgo logging rights” in Mexico on what eventually became the Thick-Billed Parrot Sanctuary. The community depended on logging as their main economic activity, and they were not convinced of the utility of forgoing lumber for a small payment to protect a bird. After more than two hours of tense and stalled negotiations, a woman literally stood up to the men who opposed the deal and said, “This is not for us, it is for our children.”
From that moment the negotiations started to move again. Within an hour the deal was sealed for a 15-year moratorium on logging in the core nesting area. Present at the time were a bunch of children running and playing as the negotiations proceeded; one of them was the daughter of the woman who changed the tide.
In 2023 I returned with my former student Miguel Angel Cruz Nieto, who had become principal investigator for the project (and who has sadly since passed away). During our visit we went to a nice, modest house on the way to the parrot sanctuary. Here he reintroduced me to the woman of the negotiation 27 years earlier and to another woman and her two children. The younger woman was at that time the president of the community and had recently signed for another 15 years of forgoing logging. She laughed and said, “You don’t remember me because I was a child when you were here many years ago, but my mother told me how you had led a negotiation that the men opposed until she spoke out.”
What Else Do We Need to Understand or Do to Protect This Species?
The comprehensive population estimate being conducted in fall 2024 will provide a much-needed baseline that has been direly missing. We will continue using our 30 years of data and experience to implement a whole suite of techniques to protect habitat and manage populations in the key nesting areas. We also need to expand our community-based conservation and bring opportunities for education and wellbeing to our allies in the forest-dependent human communities in the parrot’s range. There’s a growing captive flock in zoos around the world, and particularly in the United States, which we view as an insurance population and also serves to educate and sensitize the general public on the plight of the species.
Key Research:
James K. Sheppard et al. Spatial behaviors and seasonal habitat use of the increasingly endangered thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). December 2023. Global Ecology and Conservation 48(e02712):2712
Noel F. Snyder, Ernesto C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich, M. A. Cruz-Nieto, Rene A. Valdes-Peña, Sonia G. Ortiz-Maciel, and Javier Cruz-Nieto. Thick-billed Parrot Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha. Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Version: 1.0 — Published March 4, 2020
Tiberio Monterrubio-Rico and Ernesto Enkerlin-Hoeflich. Present use and characteristics of thick-billed parrot nest sites in northwestern Mexico. J. Field Ornithol. 75(1):96–103, 2004
Dedicated to Miguel Angel Cruz-Nieto (1962-2023), principal investigator in thick-billed parrot research and mature forest conservation 2005-2023.
Marine biologist Monica Biondo has spent more than a decade studying the multibillion-dollar market for these colorful fish, which pulls thousands of species from the ocean each year.
Nothing fascinates Monica Biondo more than the animals often referred to as the ocean’s “living jewels” — the vividly colored little fishes who dance around in its waters.
Biondo, a Swiss marine biologist, became enamored with ocean life as a child after spending many summers snorkeling along the Italian coastline. Nowadays you’re more likely to find her deep-diving into trade records than marine waters. As the head of research and conservation at Fondation Franz Weber, she has spent the past decade searching through data on the marine ornamental fish trade.
These are the colorful fish you see in home aquariums or for sale at pet stores; Biondo wants to know where they came from, how they got there, and what happened to them along the way.
Compared to the clear waters around the coral reefs she’s explored, the records on these fish are frustratingly murky. Wading through them has though provided her with clarity on her calling: shining a light on the aquarium trade’s vast exploitation of these glamorous ocean dwellers.
Searching in the Dark
Her entry into the fray came in the form of a Banggai cardinalfish, a striking little fish endemic to an archipelago in Indonesia that first became known to science in the 1930s. A scientist redescribed the species in 1994, kickstarting a tragic surge in the fish’s popularity for aquariums. Within less than a decade, 90% of the population had disappeared, Biondo says.
A Banggai cardinalfish swims in Indonesia’s tropical waters. Photo: Jens Petersen (CC BY-SA 3.0)
In her search for information she has pored over paperwork in the Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office’s records warehouse. She and her colleagues at Pro Coral Fish have also spent years rifling through a European Union-wide electronic database called the Trade Control and Expert System (TRACES), which collects information on animal imports.
Although the datasets varied, the questions have remained the same. How many marine ornamental fish are being imported? What species are they? Where did they originate?
These straightforward questions are hard to answer to because the trade — despite being worth billions annually — has no mandatory data-collection requirements. As a result, information gathered about trade in these fishes tends to be opaque and haphazard compared to information on live organisms like farmed food animals.
Biondo reckons this is because the fishes are perceived as “just ornamentals.” Everyone is used to seeing them in aquariums, so few people recognize they may be in trouble in the wild.
Illuminating Findings
In a 2022 report for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the UN Environment Programme’s World Conservation Monitoring Centre criticized the data on ornamental fish collected and reported by the major exporting regions and some importing countries. Revealingly, WCMC was unable to even estimate the number of marine fishes traded globally each year with the data at its disposal.
In this landscape Biondo’s scrutiny of European imports offers key insights into the trade. She’s revealing where gaps exist in the data collection that does occur and, crucially, how they can be plugged.
For one thing, the origin of marine ornamental fishes in trade is often unclear. Biondo highlights an example: TRACES data points to Singapore as a key exporter to the European Union, but she says the country is a hub for exports rather than a source, meaning many of the fishes were originally caught elsewhere.
Biondo has also found that EU records often fail to identify the species in trade. Her latest research paper highlighted that the bloc imported around 26 million marine fishes from more than 60 countries between 2014 and 2021. But only two-thirds of the fishes — 17.5 million — were identified to species level.
Conservation biologist Alice Hughes says records can be even less specific in other places, with many datasets listing marine fishes simply as “tropical fish.” The Law Enforcement Management Information System, the U.S. wildlife trade database, is a case in point. Data collected in LEMIS and submitted to CITES shows the United States imports 5-9 million marine ornamental fishes annually, but most of that trade is reported generically as “tropical fish.”
The United States has long been the largest importer of ornamental fishes, both marine and freshwater, although Biondo’s research shows that the EU now leads in terms of import value for marine fishes. Overall, she says, existing evidence indicates the global aquarium trade involves at least 3,000 marine fish species — but the actual number is potentially even higher.
All 4,000 known coral reef fishes could be in trade, Biondo says. Without better data, it’s impossible to know for sure.
Strengthening Systems
To improve the situation, Biondo and others have called on the EU and United States to modify TRACES and LEMIS, respectively.
Biondo says both systems should be tweaked to ensure traders always provide species information. She also says they should collect data on whether fishes are sourced from farms or the wild, along with the place of capture of wild-sourced fishes.
While freshwater species are often farmed, relatively few marine fishes have been successfully bred in captivity in commercial numbers. This means that marine species are overwhelmingly wild caught, taken mainly from coral reefs.
These adaptations to the EU and U.S. systems would improve the data landscape dramatically. In turn, better data would help to ensure that the trade is sustainably managed. Hughes says that in the absence of robust information, sustainable management is presently “entirely dependent on good will of suppliers, and often a degree of guess work given the lack of population data for many species.”
Safeguarding Fishes and Ecosystems
Considering that most marine fishes are taken from the wild, sustainable management is necessary to ensure that trade does not threaten species’ survival. This is particularly true at this juncture as coral reefs currently face a litany of threats, including marine heatwaves, ocean acidification, storm damage, pollution, and diseases. Biondo argues that “all coral fishes are endangered because their habitat is endangered.” That means it’s vital to ensure coral fish populations are not put at risk by additional pressures, such as trade.
Safeguarding fishes is crucial for coral ecosystems, too, because these environments originally flourished due to the interrelations and reciprocities between organisms that live in them. This is why marine fishes don’t breed well in captivity, says Biondo, as only natural coral ecosystems can offer what they need to thrive — and vice versa.
A bluestreak cleaner wrasse provides cleaning services for a parrotfish. Photo: Dmitry Domrin (CC BY 4.0)
All these types of fishes are exploited in the aquarium trade to greater or lesser extents. But without adequate data and monitoring, whether their exploitation poses a threat to crisis-stricken reefs is anyone’s guess.
Running Against the Clock
If robust information existed, species potentially at risk could be identified and considered for inclusion in CITES, ideally before they became endangered. The trade in aquarium fishes has largely flown under the treaty body’s radar to date, with few ornamental fishes listed in CITES. The treaty body regulates international trade in seahorses, some sharks and rays that are exploited for larger aquaria, the clarion angelfish, and the humphead wrasse. But the thousands of small, colorful reef species found in aquariums are not covered.
Unsurprisingly, Biondo has some ideas on this. In her research, she has created “watchlists” that she says could be used to pinpoint species traded within the EU that would benefit from CITES listings. The watchlists, which were published in her latest paper this June in the journal Animals, spotlight species that warrant close monitoring due to various factors, such as trade levels and trends, vulnerability to fishing, and conservation status.
Some common marine aquarium fishes feature in the watchlists. Indeed, the blue-green damselfish sits at the top of one of them — perhaps the most heavily traded marine ornamental fish of all. The fish’s watchlist position is due high levels of trade and an inexplicable 70% drop in imports to the EU between 2014 and 2021, which could indicate population declines.
Bluegreen damselfish shelter in the safety that corals provide. Photo: Paul Asman and Jill Lenoble (CC BY 2.0)
The United Kingdom’s Ornamental Aquatic Trade Association says this “abundant” fish is safeguarded from overexploitation because extraction is spread out over “dozens of collection points.” Many millions of blue green damselfish have been taken from the ocean over the years, yet the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List only assessed the species’ conservation status in 2021. The IUCN categorized the fish as Least Concern but stressed that “quantified data” on populations is limited across most of its range. Overall, the IUCN found the species to be declining globally and strongly recommended monitoring of populations and trade, alongside improved regulation of exploitation.
Nonetheless, Biondo says fishes like the blue-green damselfish illustrate a persistent mentality that because the fish are abundant, they can’t be fished out.
She doesn’t agree.
“We’re running against the clock,” she warns, to safeguard coral reefs and the living jewels that call them home.
The next four years — and beyond — are going to be awful for the science and conservation community. By learning from past experiences, we can try to minimize the damage.
There’s no sugarcoating it: The 2024 election was terrible news for science, the environment, and the role of expertise and evidence in public policymaking. A lot of important things we care about and have worked hard to create and protect are going to be broken, some beyond repair. Destructive things we worked hard to prevent are going to happen — including some that we won’t be able to undo.
While nothing exactly like the second Trump administration has happened before, some elements of what we’re likely to see mirror the era of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper. And several scientists affected by Harper’s repressive policies tell me that by working together and planning strategically, we will be able to stop some of this.
During Harper’s time in office, from 2006-2015, Canadian government scientists were prevented from sharing their expertise in government policymaking. The government also banned them from speaking to journalists or the public, often referred to as “muzzling.” The Harper administration destroyed libraries and stopped some new hiring of experts in key areas.
The intent was simple: The administration had ideological policy goals, and they weren’t interested in letting facts, evidence or reality get in the way of achieving them.
The second Trump administration will almost certainly do this — and worse. They already took a stab at it the first time, when government experts who warned the public about harmful policy choices faced serious professional retaliation and taxpayer-funded sources of key information were suppressed, hidden, or even deleted.
What can we do about it?
I spoke with several colleagues who experienced working under the Harper administration, as well as several experts in the role of evidence-based public policymaking. They offered some clear advice.
Step One: They Can’t Delete What They Don’t Exclusively Control
For scientists working at government agencies, they suggest making copies of everything so it can be stored somewhere else — and to do that as soon as possible, certainly well before the next administration starts.
For example, does your agency have a publicly funded database, report, or educational website that has anything to do with climate change, conservation, diversity, equity and inclusion, or public health? It’s very likely that the next administration will try to suppress or delete at least some of it. A nongovernment partner, such as a university or large nonprofit, can host copies of these important documents and data if they’re shared in advance.
These efforts are already underway, but it’s vital to spread the advice as far as possible, as quickly as possible, so no data is left vulnerable.
Step Two: Prepare to Speak Out (or Blow the Whistle)
Once the new administration takes place, one of the first things they’re likely to do will be to institute their own muzzling policy.
With this in mind, several colleagues pointed out the importance of getting information about what’s happening to the public. Investigative journalism sites like ProPublica are already actively seeking sources from government agency employees and have provided detailed information on how to safely and anonymously communicate with them. Research those options now, so you have the tools in your back pocket.
While it may become impossible to share key information through normal official channels, some of the experts I spoke with suggested that anonymous or pseudonymous social media accounts and blogs can be used to share expertise and key updates through unofficial channels. During the first Trump administration, some brave government employees set up unofficial “alt” or “rogue” social media accounts, anonymously sharing what experts in those agencies really thought. Perhaps the most famous of these was the “Alt National Park Service,” which arose after the Trump administration limited the National Park Service’s ability to communicate with the public.
Step Three: Collaborate (Sometimes Quietly)
There’s another way to make sure important work still happens and gets communicated, several colleagues told me: Government scientists can work as part of teams that include external scientists.
Working with collaborators on research projects means that even if you aren’t allowed to comment on a result or project, someone else can share it. If the Trump administration tries to stop it from getting released, consider removing yourself as a named author and letting the project go forward without you, perhaps with you listed in the acknowledgments instead of as a coauthor.
Step Four: Reveal How the Sauce Is Made
Several experts pointed out that agency-level regulatory decisions and reports, and changes to internal policies about how to communicate them with the public, rarely make headlines. This means that far too much of this will happen in the shadows.
At the same time, we all have a duty to make sure that everyone knows that — despite some occasional bureaucratic annoyances — we are safer, healthier, and more prosperous when key decisions are made by people who know what they’re talking about evaluating the best available evidence, rather than by uninformed idealogues. This can take many forms but requires active communication with the public and with journalists about why science, evidence, and expertise matter.
Step Five: Embrace Bureaucracy
And what if you see potential harm coming down the pike? Some experts advise using all the resources at your disposal to slow their implementation. Large bureaucracies like government agencies have their advantages in this regard.
For example, right now right-wing groups are bombarding government agencies with Freedom of Information Act requests, trying to weed out people who have advocated for diversity programs or had negative things to say about Trump. Others are looking for programs that mention climate change or other environmental threats — programs they want to dismantle. This will likely continue once the new administration is in office. Delaying responses, providing incomplete answers, and similar tactics can very well shield some people and things that we care about from prying eyes.
One advantage we have is that Trump administration attorneys and officials looking for this information (or people to punish) aren’t likely to be the best in their fields. As attorney Ken White put it, “Clown shoes are better than jackboots.”
Step Six: As Painful As This Is, We Can Get Through It
While the “muzzling” of scientific expertise under the Harper administration has effects that are still being felt a decade later, it did not and will not last forever.
Neither will this.
Assuming we still have free and fair elections in this country, there are midterms in 2026, during which Democrats have a shot at reclaiming one or both houses of Congress. We don’t have to hold off this assault on science and the environment forever. Ideally we just have to slow some of it for two or four years.
Meanwhile, external groups will almost certainly bring many lawsuits against the Trump administration. We can save a lot of important things we care about by being strategic and collaborative, keeping an eye on the light at the end of the tunnel.
Everyone I spoke with stressed that standing up to an autocratic government carries some professional, and even personal, risk — and you may not be in a position to do it. You’re not a bad person for protecting yourself and your family.
But a few brave and anonymous civil servants may be our last, best line of defense.
The opinions expressed above are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of The Revelator, the Center for Biological Diversity or their employees.
Journals this month looked at “fabulous but forgotten” ecosystems, hungry monkeys, roaming lions, lead-poisoned birds, and more — including a focus on microplastics.
When I worked for a major academic publisher in the early 2000s, Christmas came twice a year: once in December and once when the annual Journal Citation Reports came out.
The JCR, published every year since 1975, ranks academic journals against each other. Each journal receives something called an “impact factor,” a calculation based on how many papers a journal publishes and how many times its papers are cited by subsequent research within two years.
This is a very big deal in scientific circles. The higher the impact factor, the more readily the publisher can sell a journal to libraries and other institutions and the more likely the journal is to receive high-quality submissions. That, in turn, helps keep future impact factors high.
It’s not a perfect system. Smaller journals — such as those from the Global South or those covering narrow topics — don’t get cited as often, so they may not receive a high impact factor.
Meanwhile there are plenty of other ways to assess a journal’s impact. Media mentions are also a big deal, and many journals now publish statistics for each paper’s news links or social-media shares. It could be argued that nonscientific citations have a greater effect on policy and public perception than anything else.
So let’s dive into those smaller journals and share the latest science from other conservation journals around the world. Below you’ll find more than three dozen papers that grabbed my attention in the past few weeks. They cover “vampire” birds, hungry monkeys, feral cats, roaming lions, the wildlife trade, and more. Most of the articles are open access, so they should be available to researchers (and any other interested readers) around the globe.
Will they also shape policy? That remains to be seen, but some of these papers have only been downloaded a couple of hundred times as of this writing, so let’s give them a fighting chance.
“Animal-borne sensors reveal high human impact on soundscapes near a critical sea turtle nesting beach” (Biological Conservation)
“Are vehicle strikes causing millions of bee deaths per day on western United States roads? Preliminary data suggests the number is high” (Sustainable Environment)
“Camouflage or Coincidence? Investigating the Effects of Spatial and Temporal Environmental Features on Feral Cat Morphology in Tasmania” (Ecology and Evolution)
“Climatic drought and trophic disruption in an endemic subalpine Hawaiian forest bird” (Biological Conservation)
“Conserving genetic diversity hotspots under climate change: Are protected areas helpful?” (Biological Conservation)
“Counterillumination reduces bites by Great White sharks” (Current Biology)
“Diurnal Activity Budgets and Feeding Habits of Grivet Monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops aethiops) in Fragmented Moist Afromontane Forest” (African Journal of Ecology)
“Environmental Conservation and the Bulawayo CBD as a Linguistic Landscape Construction: An Ecolinguistics Perspective” (Journal of Asian and African Studies)
“Facing the heat: nestlings of a cavity-nesting raptor trade safety for food when exposed to high nest temperatures” (Animal Behaviour)
“Great Gerbils (Rhombomys opimus) in Central Asia Are Spreading to Higher Latitudes and Altitudes” (Ecology and Evolution)
“Large Reductions in Temperate Rainforest Biome Due to Unmitigated Climate Change” (Earth’s Future)
“Lead-based ammunition is a threat to the endangered New Zealand Kea (Nestor notabilis)” (Conservation Letters)
“Madagascar’s proposed domestic rosewood trade undermines species protection and exposes fatal flaws in the CITES regime” (Madagascar Conservation & Development)
“Native plants play crucial role in buffering against severity of exotic plant invasions in freshwater ecosystems” (Biological Conservation)
“Nearly half of Colombian artisan craft plant species lack national and international vulnerability assessments” (Ecosystems and People)
“Predicting conservation priority areas in Borneo for the critically endangered helmeted hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil)” (Global Ecology and Conservation)
“‘Vampire birds’: diet metabarcoding reveals that migrating Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator consume engorged camel ticks in a desert stopover site” (Journal of African Ornithology)
The Interplay of Lions and African Wild Dogs
These papers, which examine some of the same species but share no authors, deserve to be looked at in unison:
“Long-Distance, Transfrontier Carnivore Dispersals in Southern Africa” (Ecology and Evolution)
“Spatial Risk Effects From Lions Compound Impacts of Prey Depletion on African Wild Dogs” (Ecology and Evolution)
This month also featured a lot of research on microplastics — as many as 10 papers a day, by my count. Here’s a small selection focusing on microplastics’ effects on wildlife. This weighs a little more heavily on subscription-access papers, but many of these are open access.
“Bibliometric Insights into Microplastic Pollution in Freshwater Ecosystems” (Water)
“The dual role of coastal mangroves: Sinks and sources of microplastics in rapidly urbanizing areas” (Journal of Hazardous Materials)
“Ecotoxicological Impact of Cigarette Butts on Coastal Ecosystems: The Case of Marbella Beach, Chile” (Sustainability)
“From insects to mammals! Tissue accumulation and transgenerational transfer of micro/nano-plastics through the food chain” (Journal of Hazardous Materials)
“Microplastics alter the functioning of marine microbial ecosystems” (Ecology and Evolution)
“Microplastics and terrestrial birds: a review on plastic ingestion in ecological linchpins” (Journal of Ornithology)
“Microplastics in Animals: The Silent Invasion” (Pollutants)
“Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) microplastics affect angiogenesis and central nervous system (CNS) development of duck embryo” (Emerging Contaminants)
“Unraveling Plastic Pollution in Protected Terrestrial Raptors Using Regurgitated Pellets” (Microplastics)
Our next column will be a bit different: We want to share researchers’ favorite peer-reviewed papers of 2024. For consideration, drop us a line at [email protected] and use the subject line TMICS. Send us a link, your name and institution, and 1-3 sentences about why you think readers should check out your paper. We’re eager to hear from you, especially if you’re from the Global South or an institution without much public-relations support. (Deadline: Dec. 10, 2024.)
Home to glaciers, snow leopards, and rich human cultures, Ladakh suffers from a lack of political representation, which has inspired recent protests.
The Place:
Ladakh, India’s cold desert, is located to the east of Jammu and Kashmir at altitudes between 8,800 and 18,000 feet. This mountain enclave is geographically distinct, with unique climatic and ecological characteristics fostering a rich culture amidst towering peaks. Ladakh is marked by steep cliffs, deep valleys, arid plains, salt flats, and sparse vegetation. Situated between Pakistan and China, it nurtures a population of around 275,000 people, as well as rare and beautiful wildlife such as snow leopards and Tibetan antelopes.
The people and wildlife here depend on the Hindu Kush ranges to the northwest for essential resources. The other mountain ranges surrounding the Ladakh, the Karakoram to the north and the Himalayan to the south, are some of the highest in the world. Together known as the Hindu Kush Himalaya, these ranges are often referred to as the “Third Pole.” They feature the world’s most renowned peaks, clad in over 30,000 square miles of glacial ice — the largest concentration of glaciers outside the Arctic and Antarctic.
Why It Matters:
High-altitude regions have fragile ecosystems and experience the effects of climate change more acutely and earlier, which also makes them indicators of broader climate trends. This allows scientists to study shifts in weather phenomena, migration, and ecosystem responses along with the tectonic processes involved in the region’s varied geology.
A rich diversity of medicinal plants can be found here, such as Himalayan yew, known for cancer-fighting properties; ashwagandha, used for stress relief; and ginger, valued for anti-inflammatory benefits. Protecting these unique environments is essential to sustaining traditional medicine practices and preserving these invaluable resources.
Ladakh is home to a rich tapestry of cultures, traditions, and religions, including Buddhism and Islam. Its monasteries, festivals, and unique lifestyles provide insights into how diverse ways of living have adapted to harsh conditions. The area’s unique wildlife play essential roles in nutrient cycling and maintaining ecological balance: Himalayan blue sheep, also known as bharal, graze on alpine meadows, while Himalayan marmots aerate the soil and serve as prey for other species.
The Threat:
The local ecosystems in Ladakh, and the more than 1.2 billion people downstream, depend on glaciers for their freshwater supply. As the permafrost thaws, concerns about potential pandemics from viral spillover have surfaced.
Recently a collaborative effort of Ohio State’s Byrd Center and Chinese Academy of Sciences isolated 33 viruses from ice samples in the Tibetan Plateau, 28 of which were novel and estimated to be approximately 15,000 years old. The runoff from glacier melt has furthered the risk of introducing diseases into vulnerable communities.
Recent examples of mega-scale flash floods and landslides underscore the impact of man-made disasters and the urgent need for new policies.
Militarization has occurred in Ladakh due to its strategic location and geopolitical conflicts. Unregulated tourism, construction, global warming, and various forms of pollution are worsening the situation. Snow in the glaciers melts faster as black soot from fossil fuels settle on the snow and ice and absorb the sunlight they would normally reflect.
Water contamination is another major concern, and flooding has altered soil functions, microbial communities, and soil redox potential. Floods cause soil erosion, nutrient loss, and siltation of water bodies, reducing the already constrained agriculture yield in the region.
Ladakhis also lack access to essential healthcare facilities and services that reflect their needs and support their wellbeing. A decade of unfulfilled promises has left residents feeling politically marginalized and skeptical of policymakers, especially concerning healthcare and land rights. Recent amendments to forest laws allow forest land use for nonforest purposes, jeopardizing biodiversity and Indigenous livelihoods and deepening distrust.
Who Is Protecting It Now:
Ladakh activist Sonam Wangchuk and others have spent the past few months fasting, protesting, and educating the community, with the goal of bringing more autonomy to the region.
Wangchuk’s dedication to innovation and sustainable development has earned him numerous accolades, including the Ramon Magsaysay Award, often referred to as Asia’s Nobel Prize, in 2018. His initiatives — including ice stupas, artificial glaciers that store water — highlight time-tested and Indigenous innovations in the face of climate challenges.
While he envisions a future of innovative development and education for all, Wangchuk is particularly currently focused on preservation of ecosystem in Ladakh. With the extreme conditions and limited resources, the Ladakh protests are addressing the need for reforms to support the unique challenges faced by the region and he is the face of the protests.
What This Place Needs:
The ongoing protests in Ladakh reflect a desire for political representation and autonomy and are aimed at preserving ecological integrity and Tribal rights.
Among the primary demands are full statehood within India, recognition as a Scheduled Tribe under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution for legislative and administrative control, and the implementation of policies aimed at safeguarding Ladakh’s fragile ecosystem while balancing developmental needs and local participation.
Ladakhis have reason to be worried: The government of India has plans for massive solar and hydroelectric projects that come with substantial environmental and social costs, including biodiversity loss, land degradation from extensive solar farms, and alterations in local water flows. Socially these projects have the potential to displace communities and lead to external control over local resources, and eventually the influx of workers would pose a threat to the Ladakhi livelihoods and culture.
Lessons From the Fight:
The people of Ladakh teach us spiritual resilience.
The unique demographics of the region, with its blend of Buddhist and Muslim populations, foster a sense of solidarity in advocating for local governance and sustainable development. As both groups confront external pressures from national policies and environmental changes, their collective efforts symbolize a shared commitment to protect their heritage and secure their futures in an increasingly complex geopolitical landscape. This collaboration highlights a broader geopolitical context, as both communities face common challenges related to resource management, healthcare access, and demands for statehood.
Traditional practices, often overlooked, can play a crucial role in sustainability. Empowering small-scale and indigenous communities helps preserve their knowledge and ways of life. One possible answer is economic localization, which prioritizes local, sustainable practices like ecotourism that celebrate rather than exploit local culture. Small-scale green energy projects can reduce reliance on fossil fuels, protecting delicate ecosystems. Water conservation, forest management, and incentives for local businesses should replace resource extraction by large corporations. Fast-paced change often overlooks the science behind traditional practices that can help save our planet.
Do you live in or near a threatened habitat or community, or have you worked to study or protect endangered wildlife? You’re invited to share your stories in our ongoing features, Protect This Place and Species Spotlight.
As the fish swim back to places they haven’t reached for more than a century, scientists will watch for signs of the watershed’s recovery.
The removal of four hydroelectric dams on the Klamath River in southern Oregon and Northern California has been recognized as the largest dam removal in U.S. history. More notably, it’s also the largest salmon-restoration project to date.
In late September I watched an excavator take large bites out of the cofferdam at Iron Gate, the most downstream of the dams.
Photo: Juliet Grable
Just over two weeks later, a crew spotted a pair of salmon spawning in one of the tributaries above Iron Gate, where the fish had not previously been able to reach. On Oct. 16 biologists spied fall Chinook salmon at the mouth of a tributary in Oregon. This spot, 230 miles from the ocean, is above all four of the former dam sites.
The speed of the salmon’s return has astonished even the most seasoned biologists.
“Even though we’ve been anticipating the moment, it’s not until you see that first Chinook…I don’t know; I’m still in shock,” says Mark Hereford, project leader of the Klamath anadromous restoration program at Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, who found the fish in the Oregon tributary.
Photo: ODFW
News of the salmon’s return prompted a flurry of texts and excited phone calls among fish advocates. Their return is especially poignant to members of the Klamath Tribes, whose ancestral lands include the upper Klamath Basin above the dam sites. With the construction of the dams, salmon, or c’iyaals, had been absent from the Upper Basin for over 100 years.
Now attention is shifting from the massive dam-removal project to the equally enormous task ahead: restoring the Klamath watershed. Biologists will look to the fish themselves for guidance.
All Hands on Deck
The Klamath River supports fall and spring Chinook, coho, and steelhead, along with other important species like Pacific lamprey. All are expected to benefit from dam removal.
Biologists are using every means possible to detect and track salmon as they explore their new habitat. The California Department of Fish and Wildlife has installed “video weirs” to capture images of salmon in key tributaries; the agency also has crews on the ground surveying spawning salmon. Also in California, the nonprofit Cal Trout has installed a sonar monitoring station just above the former Iron Gate dam. Cal Trout is also leading a project to sample fish using special nets near the Iron Gate dam site; these hands-on surveys will provide a week-by-week snapshot of fish in the river. The crew are fitting some of these fish with radio tags and passive integrated transponders, or PIT tags, so they can track them as they move upstream.
In the upper basin, ODFW is working with the Klamath Tribes, university researchers, and other partners to conduct spawning surveys and set up monitoring stations to detect tagged fish.
“It will help us answer the question: Are fish moving into the new habitat, and if so, what species?” says Hereford.
This intensive monitoring will continue for at least four years. Besides informing restoration, the efforts will also reveal how fish respond to some of the challenging conditions in the upper basin.
The Klamath River starts in Upper Klamath Lake in southern Oregon and passes through two small dams before crossing into California.
Most of the vast wetlands surrounding Upper Klamath Lake were converted into farmland over a century ago. The lake is naturally productive, thanks to volcanic soils high in phosphorus, but the removal of filtering wetlands and channelization of tributaries above the lake let in a flood of nutrients. The lake is frequently plagued with large algae blooms and poor water quality.
There’s ideal habitat in the tributaries above Upper Klamath Lake, but to reach it, cold water-loving salmon must navigate an expanse of warm, shallow, and at times oxygen-poor water. How will they fare?
To get a jump on this question, fisheries biologists have been releasing young hatchery-bred spring Chinook into tributaries above the lake.
What they’ve witnessed is encouraging, says Hereford, who is leading the project, now in its third year. They’ve detected fish everywhere they’ve set up monitoring stations. What’s more, fish are finding cold, spring-fed pockets in the lake.
“Some of them are able to find that cold water refuge and staying there the whole summer, which is great,” says Hereford. There’s abundant food in these cold pockets, which allows the fish to grow nice and big before they head downstream toward the ocean. Bigger fish generally survive better, says Hereford.
The young spring Chinook they release later this fall will actually have the chance to reach the ocean.
“This year will be really interesting because it’s the first time we’ve released fish into a free-flowing river,” says Hereford.
Young fish moving downstream and adults swimming upstream will still have to navigate two small dams that were not removed. Both have fish ladders, but the openings in the ladders are too small for large adult salmon to pass through. (This problem will be fixed: A feasibility study is already underway.)
Radio-tagged and PIT-tagged juveniles will tell biologists how they’re getting through the dams and inform future solutions to improve passage.
Long-Term Recovery
Large dams have contributed to steep declines in salmon runs across the West.
“When we have dams in place, we have a lot of constraints on salmon,” says Shari Witmore, fish biologist, West Coast Region at NOAA Fisheries. “Layer on climate change, water management, and diversions, and that further constrains their ability to respond to local conditions and access different types of habitat. Overall, it’s more of a struggle to have sustainable, diverse populations.”
As the pioneering fall Chinook demonstrate, they’re good at finding cold, spring-fed streams. Now that the dams are gone, they can access more of them.
“When you’re talking about a large and diverse system like the Klamath, the tributaries and the main stem all work together like a family,” says Michael Belchik, senior fisheries biologist at the Yurok Tribe. “Some of the tributaries are cold-water refuges when the main stem Klamath gets warm.”
The dams on the Klamath didn’t just physically block fish; they starved downstream reaches of the sediment and gravel they need to construct their nests, or redds. The reservoirs also acted like giant heat sinks, altering temperatures downstream. They harbored massive algae blooms that compromised water quality and submerged cold springs that are ideal spawning grounds.
Already Belchik has noted the return of cooler temperatures to the river, which bodes well for the fall run of Chinook.
“If we’re seeing a couple fish here or there in certain tributaries, we’re going to see a lot more in the upcoming years as the river recovers, the clarity returns, and the spawning gravels are revealed,” says Belchik.
Dam removal is just the beginning. As exciting as it is to see the return of salmon to their historic habitat on the Klamath River, it will take several fish generations for them to establish sustainable populations, says Witmore.
Other large dam-decommissioning projects have shown that fish often respond quickly to removal of physical barriers. After two dams were removed from the Elwha River in southwest Washington between 2011 and 2014, steelhead returned to habitat above the dam sites almost immediately. Chinook salmon have also rebounded, albeit more slowly. Last year the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe was able to open a small subsistence and ceremonial coho salmon fishery — an important milestone in the recovery of these fish populations.
Restoring Habitat
Jenny Creek is one of the first tributaries to flow into the Klamath River above the Iron Gate dam. Before and after photos illustrate the dramatic effects of dam removal.
My “before” picture, from September of 2023, was taken from a bridge that passes over the creek right before it entered the Iron Gate reservoir. Fat and sluggish, the backed-up creek is painted with swirls of green algae. You can’t smell the anaerobic rot, but it’s not hard to imagine.
Photo: Juliet Grable
A year later, the water runs clear, dancing around boulders and past willows that have spontaneously sprouted along the banks.
Photo: Juliet Grable
“If you look at Jenny Creek and the Klamath main stem itself in the Iron Gate reservoir footprint, you see thousands, tens of thousands of willows coming up,” says Belchik. “A whole riparian forest is being reborn even right now.”
This tributary is one of several targeted for restoration in this and the other reservoir footprints. Crews have already been sculpting floodplains and planting new vegetation on bare ground that was uncovered when the reservoirs were drained. They’re also placing whole trees, with their roots intact, across streams to help create pools and spawning habitat.
Restoration is taking place not just in the reservoir footprints but throughout the watershed. Even groups that have historically clashed over water are cooperating to get this work done. Just last month the Klamath Water Users Association and several Tribes announced they had agreed on 19 restoration projects throughout the basin.
The old tensions are still there: Water remains a scarce resource with too many demands on it. But there does seem to be a newfound understanding that we all benefit from a healthy Klamath watershed.
Meanwhile everything biologists and other scientists are learning on the Klamath will add to the body of knowledge around dam removal.
“What are the consequences? What happens to the fish afterward? What if there’s spawning areas below the dam? What happens with the sediment?” says Belchik. “We’re going to be able to answer these questions better and better as we move forward.”
A Triumphant Return
On Nov. 3 I took my husband Brint to see the Chinook spawning at one of the tributaries. By then biologists on spawning surveys had counted more than 100 fish on a single day in that stream alone.
We walked downstream. The creek is only calf-deep in places, but the 30-inch salmon were not easy to spot. We had to learn to see the dark, undulating torpedo shapes.
The landscape opened up as we neared the confluence with the Klamath. This part of the creek had been submerged under a reservoir less than a year ago. It was treeless, and the mud adjacent to the stream banks had dried and cracked into blocks.
As we walked we were joined by others curious to witness history — hunters who were camping nearby and families on a Sunday outing. Several kids tested their balance on the large logs that had been placed across the stream, looking for fish.
“Salmon!” a boy screamed, pointing. A startled Chinook breached with a splash, then darted downstream. The boy’s mom explained why it was important not to disturb the fish while they were hard at work making more salmon.
Photo: Juliet Grable
Brint and I grinned at each other. We too were screaming “salmon,” though silently: the simple thrill of seeing these big, beautiful fish amplified by the triumph of their homecoming.
WOODLAND — Biologist Dave’y Lumley paced the shallow water at the mouth of the Lewis River on an overcast morning in late September. With each step, she carefully scanned the water in front of her, holding two hockey sticklike probes just under the surface.
“My mind goes blank on everything else and what I’m looking for is any slight movement,” Lumley said.
She and a colleague from the Yakama Nation’s Pacific Lamprey Project, Noah Sampson, were looking for larval lamprey — a difficult task because the fish can be less than an inch long at this stage of development.
The probes connect to a beeping, gauge-covered backpack, known as an electrofisher. Together, the rig works by gently shocking the water about three times a second to tease out young lamprey from the riverbed so they can be caught, counted and studied before being released.
This research was part of a three-day trip Lumley and Sampson, both Yakama Nation members, made to Southwest Washington to survey lamprey populations in the Wind, Washougal, Lewis and Cowlitz rivers, as well as some creeks — likely for the first time.
But it’s only one small part of the nation’s 15-year effort to restore Pacific lamprey populations to their former abundance in the Columbia River Basin after dams, habitat destruction, industrial pollution, ocean overfishing, climate change and other factors brought the important native fish species to the brink of local extinction.
What Are Lamprey?
While the Columbia River as we know it today was shaped by a series of floods about 15,000 years ago, lamprey date back much further.
At about 450 million years old, the eel-like fish evolved when Pangaea didn’t yet exist, the first trees hadn’t yet sprouted and the Pacific Northwest wouldn’t emerge from under the ocean for another couple hundred million years.
Lampreys’ life cycle starts when they hatch in gravelly streambeds and swim to slower-moving water. They then spend the next three to 10 years burrowed in the sand and silt, filter and deposit feeding.
Then, juveniles go through a metamorphosis and swim to the ocean, where they spend the next one to seven years using their hallmark “sucking disk” to attach to and feed on larger host fish. From there, they head back to rivers and streams like the ones where they were born, spending up to two years there before mating and dying.
In preparation for their Southwest Washington trip, Lumley and Sampson searched Google Earth, looking for sites along the rivers that appeared to have the sediment that creates ideal habitat for young lamprey.
Publicly accessible sites, including the ones visited that day, are ideal. But if she sees a privately owned spot she likes, Lumley has a few tricks up her sleeve.
“I don’t have a problem talking to landowners. Worst they can say is ‘No,’ ” she said. “We will go and make phone calls and send emails, go knock on the door because trespassing is not good, and we keep good relationships with people because then we can keep coming back every year.”
Lamprey Hide-and-Seek
The first step in restoring lamprey populations is finding out if any are in a river. The team does this by picking three 1-square-meter plots at a site and checking them for larval lamprey with the electrofisher. They then use those findings to establish how many are in a broader area.
Lumley was carefully pacing through the first plot of the first site to the electrofisher’s waltzlike beeps — one-two-three, one-two-three, one-two-three — when the day’s first lamprey darted from the sand.
“We got one, so they are here,” Lumley said. She smiled as she netted the small fish and deposited it in a bucket Sampson held.
Despite that promising start, it was the only lamprey the pair found at that site — or the next two. But even one fish was enough to collect important data.
Back on shore, Lumley wrangled the wriggling pinky-sized fish to measure it as Sampson collected and read off data about water and sediment depth, as well as pH.
The three-day survey trip comes after the Yakama Nation’s restoration efforts have achieved growing success in Central Washington, and especially in the Yakima River Basin.
The basin has seen higher numbers of juveniles heading to the Pacific Ocean and adults are starting to return, Ralph Lampman, leader of the Yakama Nation Pacific Lamprey Project, told The Columbian in September.
And while the data collected that day in September covered a worksheet front and back, surveys make up a small part of the broader restoration program. The Yakama Nation runs the program in partnership with other groups, including the Nez Perce Tribe, Warm Springs Tribe, Umatilla Tribe and Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission, as well as agencies including the Bonneville Power Administration and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Lumley used a tiny pair of scissors to delicately snip a fin for the Yakama Nation’s genetic monitoring program.
“I’m just going at the very back of the second dorsal and I’m just taking a little sliver,” she said.
The Yakama Nation also operates the world’s first full Pacific lamprey hatchery, Lampman said. Some of its other programs include education and outreach, training lamprey researchers from around the world and doing “translocations” — that’s when biologists truck returning fish past the dams to spawning sites throughout the Columbia Basin.
Why Save Lamprey?
This work started following the revelation that returns of the foundational Columbia River species had collapsed.
Bonneville Dam counted passing lamprey from when it opened in 1938 until 1969. In the years after the count resumed in 1999, the highest yearly returns of that period were still only roughly one-third of the highest returns of the earlier era.
And even those high returns during the mid-1900s were just a fraction of pre-dam returns, which lamprey biologists say numbered potentially in the millions.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which operates many of the dams, estimates roughly half of the lamprey that attempt to pass a dam succeed — and that’s for each dam. There are nine dams on the mainstem Columbia before fish reach the impassable Chief Joseph Dam, and hundreds more across the Snake River and other tributaries.
However, dams aren’t the only threat to lamprey. Habitat loss, ocean overfishing, climate change and other factors have hurt lamprey, too.
To Lumley, there is a brutal irony in the fact a species that survived 450 million years is now threatened within only a couple hundred years of the arrival of Euro-American settlers and industrial infrastructure —like dams.
“It’s unfortunate but it makes sense,” Lumley said. “We’re actually physically putting in an impassable barrier. But they’re still here, so hopefully they’ll outlive us.”
Cultural, Ecological Role
The pair and their gear — which Lumley says is often likened to something out of the movie “Ghostbusters” — have a way of starting conversations.
Lumley says the exchanges are a chance to conduct “impromptu educational outreach” about lamprey.
“Are they good to eat?” one angler asked.
“They’re good, yeah. They’re very high nutrition, high oils, vitamins, minerals, stuff like that,” Lumley said. “Little bit more than salmon — also they’re food for everything. Everything eats them.”
It’s those nutrients that get at the heart of the fish’s importance in the Columbia Basin — both to ecosystems and Native nations, Michael Buck said. He’s a Yakama Nation member and a researcher studying the history and intellectual traditions of Native people in the Columbia River Plateau.
While his recent research has involved interviewing dozens of Yakama elders to understand the role of lamprey in the nation’s life before settlers and dams arrived, he got his start when he was much younger.
“Our entire family from Priest Rapids Village would caravan all the way (to Willamette Falls) for a day-and-a-half of eeling,” he said, referring to lamprey with the shorthand name many Native people have long used.
From conversations with elders, Buck found the nation’s relationship to lamprey is just as deep and important as with salmon.
“The eel was important to children, to toddlers who were teething. The eel tail was used for a pacifier,” he said. “The dried eel tail, the oil was used for different medicines, like earaches and cleansing, and it was also a connection to stamina. The eel oil gave you stamina to be a strong fisherman, a strong horse rider.”
Buck, who also works as a traditional medicine practitioner at Seattle Indian Health Board, said the “quick, nutritious grab” was a part of what kept Native communities vital, and with its collapse, health problems arose.
“This stereotype came from starvation — the stereotypical alcoholic Indian with no teeth, diabetes. That’s something that the government gave to us,” he said. “The eel made us strong and fast and clean in our blood.”
But it hasn’t only been Native communities who have suffered without lampreys’ former abundance. Salmon and lamprey have been migrating together for as long as salmon have existed, Buck pointed out. And both the younger, more popular fish and the broader regional ecosystems need lamprey to function properly.
To Lumley, the best way to understand that is to think of the larval lamprey as doing for the river what an earthworm does for a garden.
“They churn it, they aerate it, break down organic matter and they’re good for everything,” she said. “Everything will eat them.”
It’s that importance — both cultural and ecological — that drives Lumley in her goal of restoring lamprey populations so harvests can return to what they were only a handful of generations ago.
While she didn’t taste the fish or even know much about it until she was in her early 20s, she wants other Yakama members at a young age to get to learn about lamprey and its importance — and to try it.
“When we do an educational outreach booth, we set up an aquarium with live fish so people can actually see them up close and touch them, pick them up,” she said. “It’s great being able to tie tribal youth to a traditional food source.”
Growing returns in the Yakima Basin have boosted that outreach work, and enabled them to bring back fish for members who can’t harvest them, including children and older people.
“It is very meaningful to me. I love this job,” Lumley said.
Over the past decade, she has worked her way through a college degree, and from a seasonal technician to fish biologist. She said she can’t see herself doing anything else.
It’s work that, in addition to passion and knowledge, requires and rewards a hopeful disposition: While the Lewis River only yielded one larval lamprey, Lumley and Sampson went on to find more than 60 at sites along the Cowlitz River.
“It was a really good day for lamprey,” Lumley said.
